Document Type : Original Article
Authors
1 Assistant Professor, Department of Media Management,Tehran Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
2 Associate Professor, Department of Higher Education Administration, Tehran Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
3 Professor, Department of Psychometrics, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran
4 Professor, Faculty of Management, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Cyber transgressions (non-normative behaviors, attitudes and conditions) are growing, hence we employed a three-study exploratory sequential mixed method designed to make a taxonomy of Instagram cybercultural transgressions, and cyber social control means; to examine the effects of low self-control, depression, negative interpersonal relationships, computer/ Internet self-efficacy, netiquette, and normative beliefs, and also sociodemographic factors, and media use habits on cybercultural transgressions; and to explore the effectiveness of jurisdiction, non-anonymity, filtering, and forced user migration to domestic social media platforms as cyber social control means. The quantitative findings from 989 participants showed that nondepressed, older, married, middle-income, university educated, non-student users (especially women) with high self-control, more positive interpersonal relationships, moderate levels of computer/ Internet self-efficacy, normative beliefs, and with more years of Internet use experience, and less daily Internet use, who are knowledgeable about netiquette, are parents, have a job (also retired individuals and housewives), do not use VPNs, psychotropic medications, and alcoholic beverages and/ or recreational drugs, do not have previous experience of online victimization, do not associate with online transgressors, and do not feel being in minority, are less likely than others to commit online transgressive behaviors, or consume transgressive content. The importance of jurisdiction and non-anonymity as social control means, and the failure of filtering and forced user migration to Iranian social media platforms are discussed. These findings can be useful in devising new non-coercive policies and initiatives to socially control cybercultural transgressions.
Keywords
Agnew, R. (2009). Chapter 9: General Strain Theory. In M. D. Krohn, A. J. Lizotte, & G. P. Hall (Eds.), Handbook on crime and deviance. New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0245-0.
Ahuja, L. (2021). Emerging Spamming Threats [Abstract]. In D. L. Olson & S. Kesharwani (Ed.). Digitising Enterprise in an Information Age. 285-292. London: CRC Press.
Akers, R. L., & JENNINGS, W. G. (2009). Chapter 6: The Social Learning Theory of Crime and Deviance. In M. D. Krohn, A. J. Lizotte, & G. P. Hall, (Eds.), Handbook on crime and deviance. New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0245-0.
Atchison, C. (2000). Emerging styles of social control on the internet: Justice denied. Critical Criminology, 9(1/2), 85-100. doi:10.1007/bf02461039.
Baek, H., Losavio, M. M., & Higgins, G. E. (2016). The Impact of Low Self-Control on Online Harassment: Interaction with Opportunity. Journal of Digital Forensics, Security and Law, 11(3), 27-42.
Baines, D., & Elliott, R. J. (2020). Defining misinformation, disinformation and malinformation: An urgent need for clarity during the COVID-19 infodemic. Discussion Papers 20-06, Department of Economics, University of Birmingham.
Baranowski, A. M., Vogl, R., & Stark, R. (2019). Prevalence and determinants of problematic online pornography use in a sample of German women. The journal of sexual medicine, 16(8), 1274-1282.
BBC (2021). Continued efforts of the Iranian Parliament to restrict the Internet. Retrieved 27 December 2021 from https://www.bbc.com/persian/iran-features-59803149.
Berenblum, T., Weulen Kranenbarg, M., & Maimon, D. (2019). Out of control online? A combined examination of peer-offending and perceived formal and informal social control in relation to system-trespassing. Journal of Crime and Justice, 42(5), 616-631.
Beta-co (2021). The Most Popular and Most Used Network. Retrieved 4 September 2021 from http://beta-co.ir/محبوب-ترین-و-پر-استفاده-ترین-شبکه/
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2019). Questions about thematic analysis. Retrieved 8 July 2020 from https://cdn.auckland.ac.nz/assets/psych/about/our-research/documents/Answers%20to%20frequently%20asked%20questions%20about%20thematic%20analysis%20April%202019.pdf
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
Brown, R. C., Fischer, T., Goldwich, A. D., Keller, F., Young, R., & Plener, P. L. (2018). # cutting: Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) on Instagram. Psychological medicine, 48(2), 337-346.
Buckels, E. E., Trapnell, P. D., & Paulhus, D. L. (2014). Trolls just want to have fun. Personality and Individual Differences. 67, 97-102. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.016.
Chen, H., Wu, Y., & Atkin, D. J. (2015). Third person effect and Internet pornography in China. Telematics and Informatics. 32, pp. 823-833. doi:10.1016/j.tele.2015.04.004.
Cheng, J., Bernstein, M., Danescu-Niculescu-Mizil, C., & Leskovec, J. (2017). Anyone Can Become a Troll. Proceedings of the 2017 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing - CSCW 17. doi:10.1145/2998181.2998213.
Cho, D., & Kwon, K. H. (2015). The impacts of identity verification and disclosure of social cues on flaming in online user comments. Computers in Human Behavior, 51, 363-372. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.046.
Coles, B. A., & West, M. (2016). Trolling the trolls: Online forum users constructions of the nature and properties of trolling. Computers in Human Behavior, 60, 233-244. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.070.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Sage publications.
Creswell, J., Clark, V., Gutmann, M., & Hanson, W. (2003). Chapter 7: An expanded Typology for classifying mixed methods research into designs. In Tashakkori A. & Teddlie C. (Eds.). Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research. 209-240. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Delavar, A., & Zahrakar, K. (2013). Measurement and psychometrics in psychology, counseling and educational sciences (2nd. Ed.). Tehran, Iran: Arasbaran Publication.
Dijker, A. J. M., & Koomen, W. (2007). Stigmatization, tolerance and repair: An integrative psychological analysis of responses to deviance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dolev-Cohen, M., & Ricon, T. (2020). Demystifying sexting: Adolescent sexting and its associations with parenting styles and sense of parental social control in Israel. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 14(1), Article 6. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2020-1-6.
Donner, C. M., Marcum, C. D., Jennings, W. G., Higgins, G. E., & Banfield, J. (2014). Low self-control and cybercrime: Exploring the utility of the general theory of crime beyond digital piracy. Computers in Human Behavior, 34, 165-172.
Donya-e-Eqtesad (2021). "Government Instagram" project. Retrieved 4 September 2021 from https://www.donya-e-eqtesad.com/fa/tiny/news-3786087.
Eghtesadnews (2021). The national Internet is closer to you than what you think!. Retrieved 9 September 2021 from https://www.eghtesadnews.com/fa/tiny/news-428691.
Eghtesadonline (2019). The Migration of Telegram-habitants to WhatsApp. Retrieved 9 September 2021 from https://www.eghtesadonline.com/n/1vkd.
Elo, S., & Kyngäs, H. (2008). The qualitative content analysis process. Journal of advanced nursing, 62(1), 107-115.
Entekhab (2014). Viber was finally filtered. Retrieved 9 September 2021 from entekhab.ir/000fyi.
Evans, A. E. (2021). “Wasn’t This Already Considered Sexual Harassment?”: Exploring the Reactions to Texas Law on Recipient Consent When Sending a Nude Sext Message (Unpublished Master Thesis). Texas Tech University.
Flick, U. (Ed.). (2014). The SAGE handbook of qualitative data analysis. Sage.
Ford, J. A. (2014). Poor health, strain, and substance use. Deviant Behavior, 35(8), 654-667.
Gaskin, J. (2018). Excel StatTools.
Giddens, A., Duneier, M., Appelbaum, R. P., & Carr, D. (2018). Introduction to Sociology (11th ed.). New York: W. W. NORTON & COMPANY, INC.
Goode, E. (2015). Chapter 1: The Sociology of Deviance- An Introduction. In E. Goode (Ed.), The handbook of deviance (1st ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Adolescent trolling in online environments: A brief overview. Education and Health, 32(3), 85-87.
Habibzadeh, M. J. & Rahmanian, H. (2011). Pornography in Iranian Criminal Law. The Judiciary’s Law Journal. 75(76), 89-121.
Hassan, G., Brouillette-Alarie, S., Alava, S., Frau-Meigs, D., Lavoie, L., Fetiu, A., ... & Sieckelinck, S. (2018). Exposure to extremist online content could lead to violent radicalization: A systematic review of empirical evidence. International journal of developmental science, 12(1-2), 71-88.
Hen, M., Karsh, N., Langer, E., & Shechter, R. (2020). Gender differences in implicit exposure to cyber-pornography. The Journal of social psychology, 160(5), 613-623.
Herborn, M. (2013). Regulatory channels and the energy sector: The “New Chicago School” as a methodological framework for considering Danish heat planning laws. In Juridiske emner ved Syddansk Universitet 2013. Djøf Forlag.
Herington, M. J., & van de Fliert, E. (2017). Positive deviance in theory and practice: A conceptual review. Deviant Behavior, 39(5), 1-15.
Higgins, G. E., Wolfe, S. E., & Marcum, C. D. (2008). Digital Piracy: An Examination of Three Measurements of Self-Control [Abstract]. Deviant Behavior, 29(5), 440-460. doi:10.1080/01639620701598023.
Hollingdale, J., & Greitemeyer, T. (2014). The effect of online violent video games on levels of aggression. PLOS ONE, 9(11), e111790.
Holt, T. J., Bossler, A. M., & May, D. C. (2012). Low self-control, deviant peer associations, and juvenile cyberdeviance. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 37(3), 378-395.
Horwitz, A. V. (1990). Logic of social control. New York: Plenum Press (Springer).
Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative health research, 15(9), 1277-1288.
Hutchens, M. J., Cicchirillo, V. J., & Hmielowski, J. D. (2015). How could you think that?!?!: Understanding intentions to engage in political flaming. New media & society, 17(8), 1201-1219.
Innes, M. (2003). Understanding social control deviance, crime and social order (1st ed., CRIME AND JUSTICE Series). Maidenhead: Open University Press (McGraw-Hill Education).
Internetworldstats (2021). Internet Usage in the Middle East. Retrieved 3 September 2021 from https://internetworldstats.com/stats5.htm.
Islamic Penal Code (2013). Retrieved 31 August 2021 from https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/845048.
ISNA (2018). Benefits of Telegram filtering in the pocket of ISPs. Retrieved 9 September 2021 from https://www.isna.ir/news/97072212199/.
Janowitz, M. (1975). Sociological theory and social control. American Journal of sociology, 81(1), 82-108.
Katsumata, Y., Matsumoto, T., Kitani, M., & Takeshima, T. (2008). Electronic media use and suicidal ideation in Japanese adolescents. Psychiatry and clinical neurosciences, 62(6), 744-746.
Khan, Z. C., & Mashiane, T. (2014). An analysis of Facebooks graph search. 2014 Information Security for South Africa. 1-8. doi:10.1109/issa.2014.6950517.
Király, O., Potenza, M. N., Stein, D. J., King, D. L., Hodgins, D. C., Saunders, J. B., ... & Demetrovics, Z. (2020). Preventing problematic internet use during the COVID-19 pandemic: Consensus guidance. Comprehensive psychiatry, 100, 152180.
Kovic, M., Rauchfleisch, A., & Sele, M. (2016). Digital Astroturfing: Definition, typology, and countermeasures. ZIPAR - Zurich Institute of Public Affairs Research.
Kumar, S. (2017). Characterization and Detection of Malicious Behavior on the Web (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The Graduate School of the University of Maryland.
Kurtz, D. L., & Zavala, E. (2016). The importance of social support and coercion to risk of impulsivity and juvenile offending. Crime & Delinquency, 63(14), 1-24.
Lessig, L. (2006). Code: Version 2.0. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Lewis, S. P., & Baker, T. G. (2011). The possible risks of self-injury web sites: a content analysis. Archives of suicide research, 15(4), 390-396.
Lewis, S. P., Heath, N. L., Michal, N. J., & Duggan, J. M. (2012). Non-suicidal self-injury, youth, and the Internet: What mental health professionals need to know. Child and adolescent psychiatry and mental health, 6(1), 1-9.
Li, C. K., Holt, T. J., Bossler, A. M., & May, D. C. (2016). Examining the Mediating Effects of Social Learning on the Low Self-Control—Cyberbullying Relationship in a Youth Sample. Deviant Behavior, 37(2), 126-138. doi:10.1080/01639625.2014.1004023.
Lombard, M., Snyder‐Duch, J., & Bracken, C. C. (2002). Content analysis in mass communication: Assessment and reporting of intercoder reliability. Human communication research, 28(4), 587-604.
Lyngs, U., Lukoff, K., Slovak, P., Binns, R., Slack, A., Inzlicht, M., & Shadbolt, N. (2019). Self-control in cyberspace: Applying dual systems theory to a review of digital self-control tools. In proceedings of the 2019 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1-18).
Marcotte, A. S., Gesselman, A. N., Fisher, H. E., & Garcia, J. R. (2020). Women’s and men’s reactions to receiving unsolicited genital images from men. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(4), 1-10.
Meraji Oskuie, S., Mohamadkhani, K., Delavar, A., Farhangi, A. (2022). A Path Analysis of Factors Affecting Social Control of Cybercultural Transgressions. Journal of Cyberspace Studies, 6(1), 53-68. doi: 10.22059/jcss.2022.335384.1068
Mills, D. J., & Allen, J. J. (2020). Self-determination theory, internet gaming disorder, and the mediating role of self-control. Computers in Human Behavior, 105, 106209.
Mojnews (2019). The Telegram Filtering Experience. Retrieved 4 September 2021 from https://www.mojnews.com/fa/tiny/news-275178.
Morse, J. M., Barrett, M., Mayan, M., Olson, K., & Spiers, J. (2002). Verification strategies for establishing reliability and validity in qualitative research. International journal of qualitative methods, 1(2), 13-22.
Mowlaie, M., Abolghasemi, A., & Aghababaei, N. (2016). Pathological narcissism, brain behavioral systems and tendency to substance abuse: The mediating role of self-control. Personality and Individual Differences, 88, 247-250.
Murray, A. D. (2007). The regulation of cyberspace: Control in the online environment. New York, NY: Routledge-Cavendish.
Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guide book. Sage.
Nevin, A. D. (2015). Cyber-Psychopathy: Examining the Relationship between Dark E-Personality and Online Misconduct (Unpublished Master Thesis). The University of Western Ontario.
Nicklin, L. L., Swain, E., & Lloyd, J. (2020). Reactions to unsolicited violent, and sexual, explicit media content shared over social media: gender differences and links with prior exposure. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(12), 4296.
Oskuie, S. M., Mohamadkhani, K., Delavar, A., & Farhangi, A. A. (2020). Cybercultural Transgressions in Comments by Iranian Instagram Users. Asiascape: Digital Asia, 7(3), 155-186.
Peterson, J., & Densley, J. (2017). Cyber violence: What do we know and where do we go from here? Aggression and Violent Behavior, 34, 193-200. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2017.01.012.
Piquero, A. R. (2009). Chapter 8: Self-Control Theory: Research Issues. In M. D. Krohn, A. J. Lizotte, & G. P. Hall, (Eds.), Handbook on crime and deviance. New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0245-0.
Pratt, T. C., Turanovic, J. J., Fox, K. A., & Wright, K. A. (2014). Self‐control and victimization: A meta‐analysis. Criminology, 52(1), 87-116.
Purba, A. W. D., & Istiana, N. S. W. (2019). The Correlation Between Self-Control and Social Media Addiction (Instagram) In SMA Harapan 1 Medan. In ICONSEIR 2019: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference of Science Education in Industrial Revolution. 4, p. 370.
Reyns, B. W., Fisher, B. S., Bossler, A. M., & Holt, T. J. (2019). Opportunity and self-control: Do they predict multiple forms of online victimization? American Journal of Criminal Justice, 44(1), 63-82.
SANTOS-D’AMORIM, K., & de Oliveira MIRANDA, M. K. F. (2021). MISINFORMATION, DISINFORMATION, AND MALINFORMATION: CLARIFYING THE DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES IN DISINFODEMIC TIMES. Encontros Bibli: revista eletrônica de biblioteconomia e ciência da informação, 26, 01-23.
Seko, Y., Kidd, S. A., Wiljer, D., & McKenzie, K. J. (2015). On the creative edge: exploring motivations for creating non-suicidal self-injury content online. Qualitative health research, 25(10), 1334-1346.
Stemler, S. (2001). An overview of content analysis. Practical assessment, research & evaluation, 7(17), 137-146.
Stevens, C., Zhang, E., Cherkerzian, S., Chen, J. A., & Liu, C. H. (2020). Problematic internet use/computer gaming among US college students: Prevalence and correlates with mental health symptoms. Depression and Anxiety, 37(11), 1127-1136.
Tischler, H. L. (n.d.). Chapter Six: Deviant Behavior and social Control. In H. L. Tischler (Author), Introduction to sociology. Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Van Kokswijk, J. (2010). Social Control in Online Society--Advantages of Self-Regulation on the Internet. 2010 International Conference on Cyberworlds, 239-246. doi:10.1109/cw.2010.44.
Vazsonyi, A. T., Machackova, H., Sevcikova, A., Smahel, D., & Cerna, A. (2012). Cyberbullying in context: Direct and indirect effects by low self-control across 25 European countries [Abstract]. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(2), 210-227. doi:10.1080/17405629.2011.644919.
Vlasceanu, M. O. (2021). Cognitive Processes Shaping Individual and Collective Belief Systems (Doctoral dissertation). Princeton University.
Walliman, N. (2011). Research methods: The basics. Abingdon, England: Routledge.
Walsh, A., & Beaver, K. (2009). Chapter 5: Biosocial Criminology. In M. D. Krohn, A. J. Lizotte, & G. P. Hall, (Eds.), Handbook on crime and deviance. New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0245-0.
Walsh, C. (2020). Netiquette, Digital Safety and Social Networking in the Junior High Classroom (Unpublished Master Thesis). St. Cloud State University.
Whelan, A. M. (2013). Even with cruise control you still have to steer: defining trolling to get things done. Fibreculture Journal: internet theory criticism research, 22, 1-36.
Worthen, M. G. (2016). Sexual deviance and society. A sociological examination. New York, NY: Routledge.
)